Literature Review
Classifying Adult Sexual Offenders: Types of Paraphilias
Paraphilias are often measured by
arousal using penile plethysmography that measures penile tumescence in response to audio
or visual stimuli.
Sexual offender research classification of paraphilias:
Hands-on Offenses |
|
| Pedophilia | sexual preference for children |
| Frotteurism | touching or rubbing a nonconsenting person |
| Sexual Sadism | inflicting pain or humiliation upon a person for sexual gratification |
Hands-off Offenses |
|
Exhibitionism |
exposing one's genitals |
Voyeurism |
peeping on a nonconsenting person |
Problems with using these typologies: |
| 1. Questionable whether sexual deviant behavior represents a true psychopathology. |
| 2. Rape is not addressed directly as a paraphilia. |
(Abel & Osborn, 1992; Abel & Rouleau, 1990; American Psychiatric Association, 1994)
Differences between rapists and child molesters
| Classified by Arousal |
| Rapists demonstrate a stronger arousal for forced sex with adults |
| Child molesters demonstrate a stronger arousal for coerced sex with children |
Problems: |
| American Psychological Association reports that plethysmography is not a valid instrument for classifying sexual offenders because offenders can manipulate arousal. |
| Many studies have not found any arousal differences among sexual offenders and nonoffenders. |
(Abel, Barlow, Blanchard, & Guild, 1977; American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Marshall, 1973; Marshall, Payne, Barbaree, & Eccles, 1991)
Differences among types of rapists
Classified by Relationship to the Victim and Measured by Arousal |
| Acquaintance Rapists are characterized as coercive, less violent, and less opportunistic. |
| Stranger Rapists are more hostile and use more expressive violence. |
Problems |
Phallometric studies have not shown discriminant validity between violent rapists and nonviolent rapists. Both types of rapists appear to be equally aroused by physical rape. |
(Bruisma, 1995; Prentky & Knight, 1991; Segal & Stermac, 1985; Seto & Kuban, 1996)
Differences among types of child molesters
Classified as fixated or regressed and measured by arousal |
| Fixated child molesters prefer interaction with children socially and sexually |
| Regressed child molesters prefer interaction with adults, sexual interaction with children is situational |
Classified by relationship to the victim and measured by arousal |
| Extrafamilial child molesters display deviant arousal to children and often select a child as a primary sexual partner. |
| Intrafamilial child molesters not display deviant arousal to children, substitute a child for an adult sexual partner, and often maintain adult sexual relationships. Also perceived as least likely to reoffend. |
Classified by gender preference and measured by arousal |
| Same-sex preference perceived to have more victims and to be fixated. |
| Opposite-sex preference perceived to have fewer victims and to be regressed. |
Problem: |
Highest number of victims appears to be in the mixed-gender group. A group rarely examined in adult sexual offender research. |
(Abel, Becker, Cunningham-Rathner, Mittleman, & Rouleau, 1988; Freund & Kuban, 1993; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982; Hanson, Steffy, & Gauthier, 1993; Marques, 1995; Marshall, 1996; Miner & Dwyer, 1997; Prentky, Knight, & Lee, 1997)
Multiple Paraphilias
Adolescent Sexual Offenders
In contrast to adult sexual offenders, most researchers characterize adolescent sexual offenders as a heterogeneous group with multiple paraphilic interests
Adolescent Sexual Offenders |
| Admit to committing hands-off and hands-on sexual offenses (multiple paraphilias) |
| Offend frequently and indiscriminately across relationships, gender, and age. |
| Admit to committing deviant sexual behaviors as early as age 10. |
| Often disclose 69% of sexual deviant behaviors. |
(Becker, Cunningham-Rathner, & Kaplan, 1987; Hunter, Goodwin, & Becker, 1994; Longo & Groth, 1983; Worling, 1995)
Adult Sexual Offenders (Nonincarcerated)
Few studies have found evidence of multiple paraphilias within the adult sexual offender population because offenders are reluctant to disclose deviant sexual behaviors. These two studies found that through guaranteed anonymity, adult sexual offenders admit to multiple paraphilias.
Multiple Paraphilias in Nonincarcerated Adult Sexual Offenders |
||
| Researchers | Method | Findings |
| Abel, Becker, Cunningham-Rathner, Mittleman, and Rouleau (1988) | Certificate of
Confidentiality from the federal government (N = 561) |
10% enaged in one paraphilia |
| Weinrott and Saylor (1991) | Computer automated self-report measure | 32% of rapists
sexually assaulted a child 50% of offenders engaged in hands-off and hands-on offenses |
Methods of Obtaining Admissions
Cannot guarantee confidentiality within
the prison setting
Most incarcerated sexual offenders deny
(60%) and minimize (38%)their offenses
Cognitive-behavioral treatment
To reduce denial and minimization, researchers recommend the use of cognitive-behavioral treatment
Cognitive-behavioral treatment for obtaining admissions |
|
Group setting and offender participation |
Offenders are invested and held accountable |
| Psychoeducational approach | Offenders learn healthy sexuality, social skills, and levels of denial |
| Cognitive restructuring | Through homework and role-play, offenders become aware of individual distortions and the impact of their sexual deviant behaviors have on victims |
| Enacting a relapse plan | Through examining past offenses, offenders recognize victim choices, strategies to obtain victims, and specific sexual acts with which they will engage in. They recognize their offense cycles and learn methods to interrupt them. |
(Abel et. al, 1984; Annon, 1996; Barbaree, 1991; Hanson, 1997; Maletsky, 1991; Marshall, 1996; Priest & Smith, 1992; Schlank & Shaw, 1996)
Polygraph Testing
Additional admissions can be obtained when cognitive-behavioral treatment is combined with polygraph testing
Polygraph testing in obtaining admissions |
| Perceived as a "lie detector" |
| Evaluates physiologic reactions that occur in response to emotions of fear associated with lying |
| Cannot determine absolute truth from deception; it measures an individual's perception of truth or deception |
(Abrams, 1991; O'Connel, 1998)
Polygraphists assessing sexual offenders use the control Question Technique
Control Question Technique |
|
Assesses truthfulness by comparing physiological responses to two types of questions: |
|
| Relevant Questions | address the primary issue of investigation |
| Control Questions | are assumed lies that serve as a comparison (designed to evoke a strong physiological response in truthful individuals) |
| Individuals attend to questions that produce a greater threat. Individuals who are lying will demonstrate a stronger reaction to the relevant questions |
(Abrams, 1991)
To obtain disclosures about deviant sexual behaviors, polygraphists use a disclosure test that consists of three phases
Three Phases of the Disclosure Test |
|
| Pretest Interview | Review previously
disclosed victims and offenses Questions offender about undisclosed victims and offenses Formulates and reviews exam questions |
| Exam Question Phase | Offenders' physiological reactions to questions are measured using the polygraph instrument. |
| Posttest Interview | Offender learns the
results of the exam Elaborations about admissions Explanations about deception |
(Abrams, 1991; Hagler, 1995; O'Connell, 1998)
Using polygraph testing, researchers have obtained admissions of multiple paraphilias in sexual offenders
Polygraph testing and multiple paraphilias |
||
| Researchers | Method | Findings (polygraph test) |
| Emerick and Dutton (1993) | Adolescent sexual
offenders Examined sexual histories using three sources of information |
55% admitted to
sexually assaulting children of both genders. 47% acknowledged multiple victim relationships |
| O'Connell (1998) | Nonincarcerated
adult sexual offenders Examined sexual histories using three sources of information |
30% engaged in nine
or more sexual deviant behaviors (multiple paraphilias) 64% of rapists admitted to sexually assaulting a child 21% of opposite-sex child molesters admitted to sexually assaulting an adult 59% of intrafamilial child molesters admitted to molesting children outside the home |
These researchers concluded that polygraph testing is an effective tool for uncovering unreported sexual deviancy.